托福阅读文章类型有哪些
托福阅读文章类型有哪些?这一定是大家非常关心的话题,掌握了这些知识对于选择备考材料是非常有帮助的。为此,小编为大家整理了托福阅读文章类型的相关资料,我们不妨来了解一下吧!
托福阅读文章类型有哪些
一、托福阅读文章出处以及选材范围
作为一项语言能力测试,托福阅读备考是考查考生能否具备足够的语言交流能力,以期在北美完成正常的学习任务和研究工作。因此,其阅读文章原型大都选自美国大学本科生使用的教材,以达到最佳的模拟测试效果。文章的选材范围极其广泛,涉及有自然科学包括:天文学、地质学、生物学、气象学等;人文科学包括:艺术美学、考古学、语言学、文学等;社会科学包括:政治学、经济学、教育学、人类学等交叉学科。
从选材范围可见:托福阅读的文章内容对考生知识存储量的广度有一定的要求,但同时考虑到考生来自于不同的专业,对于其他学科往往不具备专业素质,因此为了遵守考试公平性原则,文章均不对其所述及的学科做过多深入的探讨。
二、托福阅读的文章类型及篇章段落结构
根据托福阅读文章的出处及选材范围,我们可以将这些文章归为三类:说明文、议论文、史实文。三者合一统称为:学术性文章。这种类型的文章,必须具备说理性特质,即行文逻辑大都遵循着相对固定的结构模式。
一句话:托福阅读文章的篇章结构有规律可寻,段落组成有原则可守:
1、学术性文章的篇章结构:
在学术性文章中,一般需要具备三个组成部分:
(1)Topic 话题:即文章的主角是什么。比如讲解某个科学理论、研究某种社会现象,探讨某个历史事件;
在托福文章中,这种导入性信息往往出现在篇首位置。考生可以根据篇首段信息对整篇文章所要讨论的核心内容有所了解;
(2)Aspects 方面:即将篇首的话题延伸拓展为若干个方面进行阐述说明。若话题为某个科学论点,则方面可能分为若干个支持论据;若话题为某种自然现象,则方面可能分为若干个内外成因;若话题为某个历史事件,则方面为几段发展时期;
在托福阅读文章中,往往依照各个方面之间的层次关系,将各个方面拆分为若干个独立的自然段落,共同组成行文主体;
(3)Attitude态度:即文章的作者对于所讨论话题持怎样的态度。或是积极肯定,或是消极否定,或是保持中立。
在托福阅读文章中,态度往往是被较多的淡化甚至有可能省略不提。
Topic话题 + Aspects方面 + Attitude态度,这三要素加起来就是标准学术论文体的"T+A+A篇章结构"。托福文章大都遵循这种结构,考生通过篇首段落信息来把控整个文章话题及大致讨论方向,再抓住文章的各个段落主旨,便可洞悉整个文章脉络和逻辑结构。
2、学术性文章的段落结构
学术性文章的自然段落,一般需要具备两个组成部分:
(1) Topic Sentence 主旨句:表达段落的主旨,即本段想要表达的核心内容是什么;
(2) Detail 细节:为了详细说明段落中心含义,所罗列的相关支持内容,即本段通过哪些例证来阐明主旨句。
Topic Sentence主旨句 + Detail细节,这两个要素加起来就是标准学术论文体的"TS+D段落结构"。托福文章段落大都遵循这种结构,考生通过段落主旨句就可以把握该段的中心含义。
总结:当考生们了解了这种TAA篇章结构和TS+D段落结构的行文规律后,对文章框架的把握就会做到心里有数,更有利于提高阅读速度和定位有效信息的准确度。
三、托福阅读考试的量化指标
新托福阅读考试分为无阅读加试和有阅读加试两种。
无阅读加试的情况下,共有3篇文章,分为两个部分,第一部分为独立的1篇文章,考试时间为20分钟;第二部分为两篇文章,考试时间为40分钟,期间这两篇文章的考试时间可以自由分配。总体考试时间为两部分之和,即60分钟。
有阅读加试的情况下,在已有的3篇文章及60分钟答题时间的基础上,再加两篇文章,并作为一个部分,共计40分钟,加试期间的两篇文章的考试时间依然可以自由分配。总体考试时间为三部分之和,即100分钟。
托福阅读背景材料:美国文学
美国文学(American Literature)
美国文学的历史不长,它几乎是和美国自由资本主义同时出现,较少受到封建贵族文化的束缚。美国早期人口稀少,有大片未开发的土地,为个人理想的实现提供了很大的可能性。美国人民富于民主自由精神,个人主义、个性解放的观念较为强烈,这在文学中有突出的反映。美国又是一个多民族的国家,移民不断涌入,各自带来了本民族的文化,这决定了美国文学风格的多样性和庞杂性。美国文学发展的过程就是不断吸取、融化各民族文学特点的过程。许多美国作家来自社会下层,这使得美国文学生活气息和平民色彩都比较浓厚,总的特点是开朗、豪放。内容庞杂与色彩鲜明是美国文学的另一特点。个性自由与自我克制、清教主义与实用主义、激进与反动、反叛和顺从、高雅与庸俗、高级趣味与低级趣味、深刻与肤浅、积极进取与玩世不恭、明快与晦涩、犀利的讽刺与阴郁的幽默、精心雕琢与粗制滥造、对人类命运的思考和探索与对_的病态追求等倾向,不仅可以同时并存,而且形成强烈的对照。从来没有一种潮流或倾向能够在一个时期内一统美国文学的天下。美国作家敏感、好奇,往往是一个浪潮未落,另一浪潮又起。作家们永远处在探索和试验的过程之中。20世纪以来,许多文学潮流起源于美国,给世界文学同时带来积极的与消极的影响。
殖民地时期
印第安人的文化欧洲人发现新大陆的时候,北美洲的土著居民印第安人处于原始公社制度各种不同的阶段。印第安人在向大自然的斗争中创造了自己的文化,主要是民间口头创作,包括神话传说和英雄传说。由于他们没有文字,这些传说后来才得以整理问世,启发了后世美国作家的灵感。早期移民的文化移民刚到新大陆时忙于生存斗争,所以开始时文学发展比较缓慢。最早发表的关于北美的作品是游记、日记之类的文字。作者都是英国人。英国殖民地建立之后,统治者利用宗教,主要是清教主义作为控制殖民地思想意识的主要手段,因此许多出版物是关于神学的研究。著名的作家有科顿·马瑟(1663-1728)和乔纳森。爱德华兹(1703-1758)等。随着工业、贸易和民族意识的增涨,宗教自由的呼声提高,请教主义的神权统治走向衰亡,为人本主义与自由民主等民族独立的意识所代替。诊歌创作北美出版的第一部诗集《海湾圣诗》是以民歌形式写成的圣诗。迈克尔·威格尔斯沃思的诗全是解释加尔文教的教义,成了宗教性的普及读物。女诗人安妮·布拉兹特里特写的也是宗教生活,不过多少以世俗的笔调抒写妇女的心情。生前只发表过挽诗的牧师爱德华·泰勒反映了严格的清教主义的衰落。在这些诗人身上,英国的影响也是明显的,布拉兹特里特得益于斯宾塞,泰勒的诗里看得出约翰·多思和乔治·赫伯特的影响。
独立革命至南北战争时期
美国民族文学形成于独立革命时期。这场斗争产生大量的革命诗歌,并且造就了美国头一批重要的散文家和诗人。政治上的独立促进文化上的独立。战争结束之后,美国作家的作品陆续增多,逐渐摆脱英国文学的垄断局面。年轻的民主共和国使人们满怀信心,并吸引着旧世界更多的人们奔向新的大陆。这样的社会条件促使19世纪上半叶的文学创作具有浪漫主义的色彩。作家们吸取欧洲浪漫派文学的精神,对美国的历史、传说和现实生活进行描绘,美利坚民族内容逐渐丰富和充实起来。从20、30年代到南北战争前夕,是浪漫主义运动的全盛时期,各种不同风格的作家泉涌而出,作品从内容到形式都具有鲜明的民族特色。批评家们称这一时期为美国文学“第一次繁荣”。到了世纪中叶,浪漫主义文学的基调由乐观走向疑虑,迫切的社会矛盾,如蓄奴制,又使某些作家采取现实主义的创作方法。
托福阅读背景材料:火星的那些事儿
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet. The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface. This led to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by intelligent beings. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcasted a radio drama based on the science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the tale of invading Martians to cause a near panic.
Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet’s surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support a bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during colder periods.
In July of 1965, Mariner 4, transmitted 22 close-up pictures of Mars. All that was revealed was a surface containing many craters and naturally occurring channels but no evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Finally, in July and September 1976, Viking Landers 1 and 2 touched down on the surface of Mars. The three biology experiments aboard the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The question of life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet. The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface. This led to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by intelligent beings. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcasted a radio drama based on the science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the tale of invading Martians to cause a near panic.
Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet’s surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support a bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during colder periods.
In July of 1965, Mariner 4, transmitted 22 close-up pictures of Mars. All that was revealed was a surface containing many craters and naturally occurring channels but no evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Finally, in July and September 1976, Viking Landers 1 and 2 touched down on the surface of Mars. The three biology experiments aboard the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The question of life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches ?2.91,a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, although most of the time Jupiter will appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars. Mars has an average opposition distance of 78 million km but can come as close as 55.7 million km during a close approach, such as occurred in 2003.
Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.
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