托福阅读从读不完到读完如何练习
托福阅读部分,文章读不完,是每位同学在备考中需要解决的问题。那么具体的练习备考中,我们究竟应该怎么做呢?下面小编为大家整理了详细的内容,供大家参考。
托福阅读从读不完到读完如何练习
1. 读标题
首先,一篇文章的结构由标题,开头段,主体段以及结尾段组成。托福文章最人性化的一点就是三篇文章都有标题,很多同学读到这里会觉得:老师你这不是在说废话吗?不,很多人忽略了标题的作用。分析一下TPO所有文章的标题,大家会发现托福文章的标题形式一共三种:单一型,并列型以及限定条件单一型。这样的标题设计最大的作用在于,预告了本文的文章结构特点(因为篇幅关系,这个知识点此处不详细说明),通过固定的几类文章结构特点,我们可以预判此篇文章主要在讲什么。我们来看一个例子,OG上的第一篇文章:Applied Artsand Fine Arts。
先来看一下这个标题,是并列型,即有两个讨论对象,这种标题类型的文章特点是全文有两个论述对象,且排名不分前后,也就是文章会用相同的篇幅去讨论这两个对象。其次,还会有两者相同点,不同点的比较。那么我们可以预判一下本文的主旨:比较Applied Arts and Fine Arts的特点。
可是大家想要进一步知道:比较的特点是哪一些呢?标题能够传递的信息毕竟有限,所以我们需要其他的方法来深挖一下文章主旨。
2. 开头段和结尾段
托福文章的行文结构分为三种:总分总,总分和分总。总即代表主旨所在,所以主要会在开头段和结尾段阐述。我们只需要精读这两个段落就可以了。还是以Applied Arts and Fine Arts这篇文章为例,现在我们来看一下开头段:
Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them—clay, glass, wood, fiber, andmetal—it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led totheir being known as the "applied arts." Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, orclimate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it couldhardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form ofapplied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynastyvase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic formbut the incidental details that do not obstruct the object's primary function.
如果大家迅速浏览一下整个段乱,会发现本段只出现了applied arts这个概念,而没有关于fine arts的描述,那么这时候大家应该反应出来本文的结构是分总,即主旨在结尾段:
Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treatmaterials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation totheir materials in the fine arts andthe applied arts remains relatively constant. It wouldtherefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the fine arts work to overcome the limitations oftheir materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials.
迅速浏览完本段会发现,fine arts和applied arts这两个概念在最后一段的都有论述。并且这句话:Itwould therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners ofthe fine arts work to overcome the limitations oftheir materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials. (因此,毫不夸张地说,纯艺术工艺品的生产者需要克服原材料的限制进行生产,而从事实用性工艺品的生产者则依据材料的性质来进行生产。)大家看到主要的对比对象是材料的使用情况。
3. 文章小结题的introductory sentence
还有一个抓住文章主旨的小窍门是大家可以参考文章小结题所给的那一句话,即introdectory sentence,这句话的作用主要就是来概括全文的中心大意,我们还是来看Applied Arts and Fine Arts这篇文章的文章小结题:
Q:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete thesummary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
This passage discusses fundamental differences between applied-art objects and fine-art objects.
新托福阅读背景知识:地球的旋转时间变短
地球的旋转时间变短
We have been talking about some of the effects that the human beings had on the earth. One you may not be aware of is that we actually begin to change the length of the day. In the other way to say, one day is the amount of time the earth needs to spin completely around an axis, the imaginary line around the center of the earth, from the north to the south. And of course there are a lot of physical causes that can affect the speed of the earth’s rotation, but there was only one that is direct result of the human activity. Since 1950, human beings have built about ten thousand artificial reservoirs all over the world. These reservoirs have redistributed tremendous amount of the earth water. When they are used to be in the area near the equator, the imaginary line surround the middle of the earth, it’s now the reservoirs in the areas of different latitudes. The latitude matters because, well, thinking the earth and axis, the equator contains the areas on the earth that are the farthest away from axis. So water has been redistributed from the equator regions, then wherever the water is, to it’s close to the earth axis. It’s like when ice skaters perform spins when those skaters put their arms enclose to their bodies, they spin faster. So the earth is spinning faster because the reservoirs have redistributed the water close to its axis. And because the earth was spinning faster, since 1950 the length of day has decreased by about 8 millionths of second. I know that doesn’t sound like much but significant in that this is the first time that human beings ever had measurable affect on the earth’s motion.
新托福阅读背景知识:潮汐发电
潮汐发电
凡在海边上生活过的人都知道,海水时进时退,海面时涨时落。海水的这种自然涨落现象就是人们常说的的潮汐。潮汐是由月球的引潮力可使海面升高0.246米,在两者的共同作用下,潮汐的最大潮差为8.9米;北美芬迪湾蒙克顿港最大潮差竟达19米.据计算,世界海洋潮汐能蕴藏量约为27亿千瓦,若全部转换成电能,每年发电量大约为1.2万亿度。潮汐发电严格地讲应称为“潮汐能发电”,潮汐能发电仅是海洋能发电的一种,但是它是海洋能利用中发展最早、规模最大、技术较成熟的一种。
现代海洋能源开发主要就是指利用海洋能发电。利用海洋能发电的方式很多,其中包括波力发电、潮汐发电、潮流发电、海水温差发电和海水含盐浓度差发电等,而国内外已开发利用海洋能发电主要是潮汐发电。由于潮汐发电的开发成本较高和技术上的原因,所以发展不快。
潮汐发电与水力发电的原理相似,它是利用潮水涨、落产生的水位差所具有势能来发电的,也就是把海水涨、落潮的能量变为机械能,再把机械能转变为电能(发电)的过程。具体地说,潮汐发电就是在海湾或有潮汐的河口建一拦水堤坝,将海湾或河口与海洋隔开构成水库,再在坝内或坝房安装水轮发电机组,然后利用潮汐涨落时海水位的升降,使海水通过轮机转动水轮发电机组发电。
由于潮水的流动与河水的流动不同,它是不断变换方向的,因此就使得潮汐发电出现了不同的型式,例如:①单库单向型,只能在落潮时发电。②单库双向型:在涨、落潮时都能发电。③双库双向型:可以连续发电,但经济上不合算,未见实际应用。 4潮汐发电的实际应用应首推1912年在德国的胡苏姆兴建的一座小型潮汐电站,由此开始把潮汐发电的理想变为现实。世界上第一座具有经济价值,而且也是目前世界上最大的潮汐发电站,是1966年在法国西部沿海建造的朗斯洛潮汐电站,它使潮汐电站进入了实用阶段,其装机容量为24千瓦,年均发电量为5.44亿度。1968年原苏联巴伦支海建成的基斯洛潮汐电站,其总装机容量为800千瓦,年发电量为230万度。中国沿海已建成9座小型潮汐电站,1980年建成的江厦潮汐电站是我国第一座双向潮汐电站,也是目前世界上较大的一座双向潮汐电站,其总机容量为3200千瓦,年发电量为1070万度。
新托福阅读背景知识:海水发电
海水发电
硕大无比的天然热库
辽阔的海洋既是一个硕大无比的“储热库”,它大量地吸收着太阳能;同时它又是一台极其巨大的“调温机”,随时都在调节着海洋的表面和深层的水温。
海水的温度,随着深度的增加而降低。这是因为太阳光无法透射到400米以下的深海。表层海水与500米深处海水的温度,相差可达20℃以上。人们通常把深度每增加100米海水温度之差称为海水的“温度递减率”。通常是在100~200米的深度范围内海水的温度递减率最大;深度超过200米以上,其温度递减率显著减小;深度达到1000米以上时,其温度递减率已经变得相当的微小了。
海洋中上下层水温的差异蕴藏着一定的能量,专家们称之为“海水温差能”,也叫做“海洋热能”。而这种海水温差能可以用来进行发电,人们把这种发电方式叫做“海水温差发电”。
早在本世纪20年代,科学家们就开始着手研究试验海水温差发电的方法。1926年,法国物理学家G·克劳德进行了海水温差发电的小型试验。他在烧瓶A里加入28℃的温水(这相当于海水表层的水温);连接在另一端烧瓶B里放入冰块,并保持0℃水温(以代表海洋深层的水温)。用真空泵将A烧瓶内的空气抽出(抽到压力低到每平方厘米0.038)。由于液体的沸点是随着加在液面上压力的减小而降低的,所以在此低压下,足以使得烧瓶中28℃的水沸腾起来。要是能够使烧瓶内的真空度进一步提高,也就是使烧瓶内的压力变得更低,那么烧瓶内的温水就会提前沸腾而迅速蒸发。这样,相对于烧瓶B内0℃的冰块,就产生了以水蒸汽压差为主的压力差。于是,A烧瓶内蒸发的水蒸汽通过一个喷嘴喷出,推动涡轮发电机组进行发电。
克劳德试验成功以后,于1929年在古巴建造了一套专门进行海水温差发电的实验装置。他用一根直径2米的铜管,在距离海岸2000米处,从650米的深海中汲取冷海水。当温海水的温度为27.5℃而冷海水的温度为13℃时,其发电功率为22千瓦。然而,他用水泵抽取冷海水时所消耗的功率却达80千瓦。这岂不是“得不偿失”吗?实际上不然,克劳德的这套实验装置的发电潜力并没有得到充分发挥,按计算其发电功率可达220千瓦。但不管怎样,克劳德的实验表明:利用海水的温差来进行发电,在技术上是可行的。
现在的新型海水温差发电装置,是首先把海水引入太阳能加温池,将海水加温到45~60℃(有的可高达90℃),然后再将温海水引进保持真空的某一空间,让它蒸发,借助于水蒸汽来推动汽轮发电机组进行发电。
不过通常的做法是,采用氨作为工作物质,用氨来吸收海水表层的热量而蒸发成氨蒸气,以推动汽轮发电机组进行发电。做完功以后的氨被送进冷凝器(由深层的冷海水进行冷凝),再通过泵将液态氨重新泵入蒸发器,同时利用表层海水使氨再次蒸发,继续发电。
利用海水的温差来进行发电,还可以得到一种副产品——淡水,所以说海水温差发电还兼有海水淡化的功能。一座发电能力为10万千瓦的海水温差发电站,每天可分馏出378立方米的淡水,以解决工业用水及饮用之需,另一方面,由于电站抽取的深层冷海水中富含营养盐类,所以在海水温差发电站的周围,正是浮游生物及鱼类栖息的理想场所,这将有利于提高鱼类的近海捕捞量。
利用海水温差进行发电,通常要选择海水温差在20℃以上的海域。古巴、巴西、安哥拉、印度尼西亚以及我国南部沿海等低纬度海域,是进行海水温差发电的理想场所。据专家们估计,仅北纬20°至南纬20°之间的海域,海水温差的发电能量就足以达到26亿千瓦。全世界海洋蕴藏的海水温差能量大约能发电600亿千瓦。在我国的海域内,可供利用的海水温差能量大约能发电1.2亿千瓦。
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