英语专业学期论文
英语专业作为一门人文学科，其本身鲜明的人文属性决定了英语专业教育是融合人文主义教育、人文学科教育、人文素养教育与外语技能素质的丰富教育体系下面是学习啦小编为大家整理的英语专业学期论文，供大家参考。
英语专业学期论文范文一：试析英语中定语和同位语以及几种容易与其相混淆的语法现象
摘要：英语中的一些语法现象很容易含混。有的语法现象不同的语法学家有不同的提法，有不同的解释。有的学生对此百思不得其解。现就这些语法现象进行简要的分析。
论文关键词：定语和同位语,同位语,和主语补足语,同位语和状语,前置,后置
1.1定语。
定语是用来修饰和限制名词或代词，说明名词和代词的性质和特征的句子成分。作这种句子成分可以由形容词、副词、名词、代词、数词、不定式、不定式短语、动名词、分词、分词短语、介词短语，从句和句子来充当。
1.1.1形容词作定语是最普遍的现象，通常放在被修饰语的前面，特殊情况下放在后面。
(1)定语放在前面:
A: It’s a nice day to play table tennis, for it is not very hot today.
B: We are building a powerful socialist country.
由于这十分普遍，不必多举例。
(2)形容词作定语放在后面:
A.单词作定语时，如果被修饰的名词是由some, any, every, no等不定代词构成的复合词时，放在后面。例如：
He wanted to find someone reliable to help him when he was in trouble.
Let, s go somewhere quiet to have a chat.
B.通常作表语用的形容词，用作定语时必须后置：
On this committee alone there are three women.
Jang Zemin is one of the greatest statesman alive in china
The guests present included a few foreign newsmen.
C.在一些固定词组，习惯上放在后面：
Secretary general(of the U.N.) (联合国)秘书长
The president elect 当选(未就职的)总统
Director-general(of the WHO) (世界卫生组织)总干事
Court martial 军事法庭
D.某些以-ible或-able结尾的形容词用作定语，与every, the only ,或形容词最高级连用来修饰一个名词时也常放在所修饰的名词之后。如：
We must defeat them in every way possible
This is the only reference book available here
The workers are trying their best to improve their productivity at the highest speed possible.
This is the best cottage imaginable.
1.1.2 副词偶尔可以作定语，一般放在所修饰词的后面：
My stay here is very unpleasant because of the serious air pollution due to the dump nearby.
The edifice around is the most magnificent one in the city.
On my way home last night, I’m afraid to be caught by a ghost.
I’ll come over to see you on my next day off.
间或也有放在前面的情况：
The above remarks are quite to the point.英语专业毕业论文
The then government paid little attention to that problem.
1.1.3名词、形容词型物主代词、指示代词、疑问代词、不定代词、数词、动名词作定语时须放在前面。如：
The paper flower here is very beautiful.
There is no timetable for the reunification of Taiwan.
My brother is very unfortunate due to his poor family, bad luck in aggressiveness.
Because of theses reasons, I gave up the strong desire to pass the entrance postgraduate examination.
What kind of goal should you set in the future?
Both televisions has been stolen by thieves
One thousand and three hundred million Chinese people were striving for the prevention of SARS.
The sleeping car there is very comfortable.
1.1.4分词作定语大多数情况下前置，有时根据习惯后置。
前置：
Quickly, he became the leading figure in the school by his dishonest way.
That is such a complicated problem that nobody can solve them easily.
后置：
They were very glad to have accepted the presents offered.
Most of the people singing were women.
He urged those concerned to take an active part in the work.
1.1.5不定式，不定式短语、分词短语、从句作定语一般放在所修饰词的后面。这里不赘述。
2.0同位语。
如果两个句成分中其中一个成分进一步解释和说明另一个成分，且两个成分处于等同的地位。那么这个成分被称作同位语。被进一步解释和说明的对象一般是名词和代词。
2.1.1同位语多数情况下也是由名词和代词充当。此外数词.形容词.不定式.动名词、Of 短语.从句以及由一些引导语引导的句子等也可用来作同位语。
例如：
I have three wishes, health, career, and wealth.
We, the Chinese people, are determined to defeat new-discovered coronary viruses in the decisive battle against the SARS.
We all wanted to pass the entrance examination.
They two got master’s degree, we four only got bachelor’s degree. That’s a pity
The city of Chongqing is a world-famous city.
The art of writing is very important for a Chinese teacher.从句作同位语一般跟在单词ides, fact, rumour, news, question, hope, belief, thought, doubt, way, probability, certainty, likelihood, evidence,成语on condition, on the supposition, on the ground(s), on the understanding, with the exception, in spite of the fact 等词或词组之后例如：
The news that he has passed the examination is only a rumour.
We are not investigating the question whether he is not trustworthy.
There can be no doubt that he will succeed finally.
The explanation that he couldn’t see the car is unsatisfactory.
She went to the meeting on the supposition that people would not assail her with questions
Their kind-hearted suggestion, to try my best to pass my postgraduate examination instead of continuing to do my job, has met some opposition in my family.
The first attempt, stealing at the hotel, was ruined because of the precaution of the detective.
2.2.2同位语一般紧跟在被修饰词的后面，但有时可以隔开:
They are all my best friends
The five pens cost us five Yuan each.
We are none of us perfect.英语毕业论文网站
U.s. spread the rumor all around the world that Iraq has surrended.
同位语常可以由下列词语隔开：namely, viz. (that is), that is to say, to wit, in other words, or, or rather, for short, for example, say (比如，假定说) ，let us say (假定说) ，mostly，chiefly mainly, particularly, in particular, including等等。例如：
I am fond of romantic stories very much, especially the stories of Qiong Yao.
My blossom friend, that is to say, Mr.zhong is leaving me.
2.2.3偶尔也有放在前面情况。如职称、作主语的是人称代词的同位语、由形容词、过去分词等担任的同位语等均可以放在前面。例如：
Teacher Xiao is my best fellow townsman.
General Huolong is the most admirable one in my mind.
Always a diligent student, Wanglei is studying much harder than anybody else.
A skilful hand at improving tools, Xiaohe helped to make a new type of cutter.
A father of my lovely daughter, I am working and studying to my best of my ability.
Full of youthful vigor, he was diligent and modest.
Designed by Chinese engineers, the project was completed in only two years.
另外动词、形容词、副词等亦可有其同语。如：
We are going to improve ourselves in various fields, to try to get even higher marks than year.
She is more than pretty, that is, beautiful.
He is studying as hard as before, that is to say, not very hard.
3.0同位语和其他一些不同名称的有些相似的语言成份由于内含相仿，概念相似而容易混淆，很多时候不少学生区分不开来，往往被弄得晕头转向。
3.1同位语和定语的区别和联系。
从上面可以看出它们的区别不在于位置的先后，也不在于用什么样的词和其他语法结构来担任，而在于他们的不同的定义。
不同的语法学家对同位语和定语下的定义不一样。因此，要找到他们之间的区别，必须先明确他们的定义。著名语法学家张道真(1992：5)说：定语就是“用来修饰或限制名词或代词”的语法成分。对于同位语他是这样定义的“一个名词或代词后面有时可以跟一个名词(或起类似作用的其他东西)，对前者作进一步解释，说明它指的是谁是什么等，叫做同位语。”(张道真，1992：499)本人认为“进一步解释、说明”与其所说的“修饰或限制名词或代词”大同小异，故在张先生的《实用英语语法》一书当中把同位语归于定语这个大目录下。
根据这个定义，有时很难区分两种语法现象。(当然，新版的张道真的《实用英语语法》对此的表述已经和薄冰之语法书雷同)如：
the city of Philadelphia ,the art of revolution以及 ides, fact, rumour, news, question, hope, belief, thought, doubt, way, probability, certainty, likelihood, evidence等词后面的that引导的从句。
现在我们来看一看语法家薄冰(1998: 459;2000: 473)对同位语的定义：“当两个指同一事物的句子成份放在同等位置，一个成分可被用来说明或解释另一个成分，前者就叫做后者的同位语。”
薄冰对同位语的概念有更严格的限制，他所的同位语不同于定语，他没有把二者归为同一类。对同位语的定义体现在“同”字上，即同等位置，同一事物。这种定义更加明确一些。
但两者有共同点：一般都是用来修饰或限制一个名词或代词，说明身分，范围，具体内容，都是为了把被修饰的名词或代词具体化，使意思更加明确。语法学家张道真正是抓住了它们的这一共同特征。
3.2同位语和主语补足语的区别和联系。
同位语是对句中的另一个成分的解释和说明，而主语补足语是对主语的补充说明，补足主语的意义。因此它们有共同的地方。现举例说明。
主语补足语：(和主语不等同，补充其意义的不足)
Tired and sleepy, I delivered a very bad lecture this afternoon.
Chen, only 1.30metres tall, won her third gold when she triumphed in the individual floor exercises.金融学论文
She stepped down the rostrum very nervous.
She was called the real heroine.
主语的同位语:(和主语等同)
You students should study diligently if you want to realize you dream.
A black by birth, the writer inborn the traditional good manners passed from generation to generation.
从上面的例子我们可以看出，虽然它们有相似的地方，但是同位语强调的是等同——“同一事物、同一位置”。
3.3有的同位语和状语相似，也可以说就是状语。
有的时候同位语相当于一个状语，或者一个省略了某些语法成份的状语从句。如形容词、过去分词等担任的同位语(一些语法学家或称之为非限制性定语,也有一些语法学家称之为主语补足语)。如表示原因,让步等。例：
Unselfish and eager to offer help to others (as he was unselfish and eager to help others), he won the heart-felt love of the local peasants.
Old, short and thin (because I was old, short and thin), I am afraid I can’t pass the interview in employment agency.
Full of energy and vigor (as he was full of energy and vigor), he won a lot of money by his heavy work.
Liberated in form only (as they were liberated in form), they white American man are still prejudiced against the Negroes and oppress them in many fields.
An even-tempered man (although he was an even-tempered), he was nevertheless extremely angry when he heard the news.
4.0结语。学习语法是为更好地满足理解和表情达意的需要，有时同一个语法现象可以这样说，也可以那样说，不同时期，不同的语法家，或同一语法家在不同的时期的提法是不一定完全相同的。从不同的角度去理解，都是正确的。不必过分地钻牛角尖。
参考书目：
[1]Caulicover, P.W. Syntax. New York: Academic Press [M]. 1982.
[2]Greenbaum, S. The English Language Today [M]. Oxford: Pergamon.1985.
[3]Leech, G. & Jan Svartvik. A Communicative Grammar [M]. of English.London: Longman. 1984.
[4]Murphy, F.R. English Grammar in Use [M]. Cambridge: University Press. 1974.
[5]Swan, M. Practical English Grammar [M]. Oxford: University Press.1980.
[6]Thomson, A. J. & A. V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar [M]. Oxford: University Press.1979.
[7]张道真.实用英语语法[M]..北京：商务印书馆. 1992.
[8]张道真.实用英语语法[M].. 外语教学与研究出版社. 1995.
[9]薄冰.薄冰英语语法[M].. 北京：开明出版社. 1998.
[10]薄冰.高级英语语法[M].. 北京：世界知识出版社. 2000.
[11]吕瑞昌、喻去根等.汉英翻译教程[M]..西安：陕西人民出版社. 1983.
英语专业学期论文范文二：试析法律英语文本中情态动词shall的用法及其翻译
摘要：情态动词shall是英语法律文本中重复率很高的法律用词，其具有指示性和施为性的法律含义，与普通英语中的含义有很大的不同。能否正确的理解和准确的翻译shall的用法和意思对于强调准确性的英汉法律法规及法律合同意义重大，本文旨在探讨法律英语中shall的基本用法。
论文关键词：shall,法律英语,法律翻译
Shall是构成英文法律文体的一个最主要的情态动词。当shall作为情态动词与第三人称一起使用时，它表示义务、职责、权利、命令、特权和许诺等。这一点是法律英语界人士和英语语法专家所共知和公认的。在大陆法系(包括中华法系)中没有一个完全对等的词汇在翻译shall。在法律英语中shall的作用相当于must, have to, be to (do), be required to，is等。但在将其翻译成中文时，不但是英语系翻译专业的学生感到难以把握，就连从事英语法律翻译的老师、专业人员也觉得该词难翻译，常常下笔踌躇，莫衷一是。
shall的用法
shall在英文法律文本中主要表示“指示性”、“施为性”的含义和“命令”、“义务”和“权利”等。《兰登书屋法律词典》(Random House Webster’s Dictionary of the Law)对shall的法律解释为以下三项：
a,在特指法规或司法解释中表示命令、必要性和强制性(expressing mandate, necessity or compulsion, especially in statutory or judicial directives).
b,表示决心、肯定和强调(expressing determination, certainty and emphasis).
c, 表示计划、意愿和预期(expressing futurity, especially plan, intention or expectation)。
从《兰登书屋法律词典》释义中我们可以知道shall表示“命令”是，即指法律语言中的“指示性”;其表示“强制性”的含义指法律语言中的“施为性”;其表示“必要性”的含义指法律语言中的“义务”和“责任”。第二条解释“决心”、“肯定”和“强调”是为了强调法律语言的语势，主要起修辞性的作用。第三条解释一般用于法律合同等实务性法律文书中。[1]
2.1 shall表示“义务”和“责任”时通常被翻译成“应当”、“应”，有时被译成“须”乃至“必须”。
例1. 间歇性的精神病人在精神正常的时候犯罪，应当负刑事责任。(《中华人民共和国刑法》第18条第二款)
Any person whose mental illness is of an intermittent nature shall bear criminal responsibility if he commits a crime when he is in a normal mental state. [2]
例2. 设立股份有限公司，应当具备下列条件：(《中华人民共和国公司法》第77条)
The following conditions shall be met if a company limited by shares is to be incorporated:英语教育毕业论文 [3]
例3. 人民法院发现受理的案件不属于本院管辖的，应当移送有管辖权的人民法院，受移送的人民法院应当受理。受移送的人民法院认为受移送的案件依照规定不属于本院管辖的，应该报请上级人民法院指定管辖，不得再自行移送。(《中华人民共和国民事诉讼法》第36条)
If a People’s Court finds that a case is has entertained is not under its jurisdiction, it shall refer the case to the People’s Court that has jurisdiction over the case. The People’s Court to which a case has been referred shall entertain the case, and if it considers that, according to the relevant regulations, the case referred to it is not under its jurisdiction, it shall report to a superior People’s Court for the designation of jurisdiction and shall not independently refer the case again to another People’s Court. [4]
例4. 行政长官缺位时，应在六个月内依本法第四十五条的规定产生新的行政长官。行政长官缺位期间的职务代理，依照上款规定办理。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第53条第二款)
In the event that the office of Chief Executive becomes vacant, a new Chief executive shall be selected within six months in accordance with the provisions of Article 45 of this Law. During the period of vacancy, his or her duties shall be assumed according to the provisions of the preceding paragraph. [5]
例5. 众议院由各州人民每两年选举产生的众议员组成。每个州的选举人须具备该州州议会人数最多一院选举人所必需的资格。
(《美利坚合众国宪法》第1条第二款)
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. [6]
例6. 进出境运输工具、货物、物品，必须通过设立海关的地点进境或出境(《中华人民共和国海关法》第8条)
All inward and outward means of transport, goods and articles shall enter or leave the territory at a place where there is a Customs office. [7]
2.2 shall在中文文本中“不译”的情况
2.2.1 在具有较长实效的一般性法律条文中(如宪法、刑法、民法等较稳定的法律)。因为立法者或统治者总希望他们制定的法律不仅要求其实施对象过去遵守、现在遵守，而且将来也遵守。所以法律条文的英文表达形式跟真理、自然法则、定律的语言表现形式一样，主句动词时态通常都采用一般现在时。此外，法律本身就有“律人”的作用，即使条文中没有出现“应当”、“应”、“须”、“必须”等带有强制意味的助动词，它仍然对其实施对象有制约作用。例如：
例7. 对任何人犯罪，在适用法律上一律平等。不允许任何人有超越法律的特权。(《中华人民共和国刑法》第4条)
The law shall be equally applied to anyone who commits a crime. No one shall have the privilege of transcending the law. [8]
例8. 香港居民在法律面前一律平等。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第25条)
All Hong Kong residents shall be equal before the law. [9]
例9. 单位犯罪的，对单位判处罚金，并对其直接负责的主管人员和其他直接责任人员判处刑罚。本法分则和其他法律另有规定的，依照规定。(《中华人民共和国刑法》第31条)
Where a unit commits a crime, it shall be fined, and the persons who are directly in charge and the other persons who are directly responsible for the crime shall be given criminal punishment. Where it is otherwise provided for in the Specific Provisions of this Law or in other laws, those provisions shall prevail.远程品学堂 [10]
2.2.2 在法律和普通合约条文中，当shall 之后所跟的动词本身就能表达权利、义务或责任以及主句的基本结构为“shall + be + predicative(表语)”时，shall通常也是不译的。[11]
例10 死刑只适用于罪行极其严重的犯罪分子。(《中华人民共和国刑法》第48条)
The death penalty shall only be applied to criminals who have committed extremely serious crimes. [12]
例11. 公司股东会或者股东大会、董事会的决议内容违反法律、行政法规的无效。(《中华人民共和国公司法》第22条)
The resolution adopted by the shareholders assembly or the shareholders general assembly or the board of directors of a company, which in content violates laws or administrative regulations, shall be invalid. [13]
例12. 中央人民政府负责管理与香港特别行政区有关的外交事务。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第13条)
The Central People's Government shall be responsible for the foreign affairs relating to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. [14]
例13. 香港特别行政区享有独立的司法权和终审权。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第19条)
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be vested with independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication. [15]
2.3 shall用于表示“决心”、“肯定”和“强调”是为了增强法律语言崇高、庄严的意味，主要起修辞性的作用，以便给法律带来更为强烈的权威感。[16]
“Shall”可用于第一人称表示强烈的“决心”。这是其强调的用法，含有誓约或承诺的以为。如：在二战期间，美国四星上将道格拉斯·麦克阿瑟从菲律宾撤退后说：“I shall return.”(我会回来的。)这个经典式的短句就是一个承诺和一道命令，就是麦克阿瑟将军的钢铁誓言。
Shall在第二人称为单数时也可以表示强烈的修辞色彩。最为西方人熟悉的当属《圣经》这部西方最为重要的经典著作，其所使用的语言也极有影响力。例如在《出埃及记》的第20章中，摩西在西奈山上从上帝那里接受了“十诫”，其中有“You shall not murder”(不可杀人), “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.”(不可作假见证)。在新约《马太福音》第22章“最大的诫命”中，耶稣说：“You shall love your neighbor as yourself.”(要爱人如己)
一位著名的加拿大文学批评家Northrup Frye认为《圣经》的简明代表庄重，而非平淡，更不是幼稚，因其简明才更具权威性。这种不加任何修饰的语言才能更加清晰明确地传达上帝的旨意，也使每一条诫命更像一道命令，从而更具有神圣不可侵犯的尊严。[17]
加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚大学英语教授Frederick Bowers把“shall”的这种表修辞的用法分成三种方式：“‘shall’用于第一人称将来时表示‘决心’的意思非法地(illegally)转到第三人称表示义务的意思以产生修辞效果。”“shall”的这个用法是比拟那种依附于《圣经》戒律式修辞的表达方式。“伴随着宣示义务的这种意识，情态动词‘shall’业已取得了一种一般含义，那就是表示要给人以深刻的印象……实际上，‘shall’非常普遍地用作一种图腾以制造出某种法律色彩。”
“Shall”在立法起草中的用法也是会因其歧义的。因为它可能含有表示义务的意思，或者仅仅表示修辞之意。在两者之间存在重叠区，在大多数情况下，两者并不是黑白分明的。[18]也就是说，在大多数情况下，“shall”在具体法律中的用法究竟是完全表示义务，还是有修辞性质并不是很清楚。
笔者经过对比发现：在最权威的、经过数次修改但仍待完善的《中华人民共和国宪法》的英译本中，不少宪法法条都没有译成shall(见例16和例18);而同样是非常权威的《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》中，不少法条都用了shall来翻译(见例17和例19)。
例14. 在《Taxpayer Browsing Protection Act》(《纳税人浏览保护法》)SEC7213A: “State And Other Employees—It shall be unlawful for any person willfully to inspect, except as authorized in this title, any return or return information acquired by such person or another person under a provision of section 6103 referred to in section 7213A……”(对任何人来说它会(shall)是非法的……)。高中语文教学论文这是一个可能带有更多修辞意义的“shall”的用法的例子。如果换成“对任何人来说它是(is)非法的……”，意思也不会全然改变。
例15. 在该法SEC7213A(b)(1)中 “any violation of subsection (a) shall be punishable……” (任何分节(a)的违反都将(shall)是可惩罚的……)。如果我们把此句中的“shall”换为“is”， “any violation of subsection (a) is punishable……”(任何分节(a)的违反都(is)是可惩罚的……)我们看不出两者之间表述有什么差别，所以此处“shall”可能主要是修辞性的。
Shall在法律起草中的用法，主要的问题就是要判断它是表示义务，还是仅仅是修辞性的。
例16. 中华人民共和国公民的住宅不受侵犯。禁止非法搜查或者非法侵入公民的住宅。(《中华人民共和国宪法》第三十九条)
The residences of citizens of the People's Republic of China are inviolable. Unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a citizen's residence is prohibited. [19]
例17. 香港居民的住宅和其他房屋不受侵犯。禁止任意或非法搜查、侵入居民的住宅和其他房屋。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第29条)
The homes and other premises of Hong Kong residents shall be inviolable. Arbitrary or unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a resident's home or other premises shall be prohibited. [20]
例18. 中华人民共和国公民有言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由。(《中华人民共和国宪法》第三十五条)
Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration. [21]
例19. 香港居民享有言论、新闻、出版的自由，结社、集会、游行、示威的自由，组织和参加工会、罢工的权利和自由。(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》第27条)
Hong Kong residents shall have freedom of speech, of the press and of publication; freedom of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration; and the right and freedom to form and join trade unions, and to strike. [22]
3. 小结
a，shall表示“义务”和“责任”时通常被翻译成“应当”、“应”，有时则“不译”。
b, shall用于表示“决心”、“肯定”和“强调”是为了增强法律语言崇高、庄严的意味，主要起修辞性的作用，用shall或者用一般现在时态没有本质区别。
c，shall在法律文本中很少表“预期”。
参考文献：
[1] 李剑波, 种夏.法律英语中情态动词shall和may的翻译[J]. US-China Foreign Language, 2006(6)：39
[2] [8] [10] [12]《中华人民共和国刑法》(中英对照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[3] [13]《中华人民共和国公司法》(中英对照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[4] 《中华人民共和国民事诉讼法》(中英对照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[5] [9] [14] [15] [20] [22]《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》(中英对照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[6]《美利坚合众国宪法》http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm
[7]《中华人民共和国海关法》(中英对照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
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